Simple Home Remedies to Control Blood Sugar Naturally

 Struggling to control your blood sugar even with medicine? Discover the best ways to manage your sugar levels here

"I will share some home remedies for controlling blood sugar:

Portion Control: Don't eat too much at once. If you used to eat three large meals a day, try splitting that same amount of food into five smaller meals throughout the day.

Light Activity: After eating, walk slowly for 10 to 15 minutes. Even walking back and forth inside your house is beneficial.

Avoid Sugar: Avoid sugar as much as possible, including sugar in tea and coffee.

Fruit Choices: Limit high-sugar fruits like mangoes, bananas, grapes, lychees, and pineapples. Instead, choose fruits with lower sugar content, such as kiwi, papaya, pears, guava, oranges, apples, and watermelon.

Healthier Grains: For breakfast/lunch, replace white rice with brown rice or maize grits (makai ko aato).

Snack Wisely: For afternoon snacks, avoid foods made from refined flour (maida). Opt for millet (kodo) or buckwheat (phapar) roti instead.

Dinner: For dinner, eat dry roti with vegetables, but keep it light—just 2 to 3 pieces.

Dairy & Protein: You can consume milk, curd, and buttermilk (mohi). Also, include plenty of green leafy vegetables and lentils (daal) in your diet.

Rest: Ensure you get 6 to 8 hours of sleep.

Monitoring: Keep checking your blood sugar levels regularly.

If these tips have helped you reduce your sugar levels, please comment below!"

My Personal Pregnancy Journey/ Managing Diabetes and Intrahepatic Cholestasis During Pregnancy

 My Pregnancy Journey

Once you start planning for a pregnancy, you begin searching for all sorts of things on Google and YouTube. I also searched extensively for the symptoms that appear before a missed period. Today, I am sharing my personal experience regarding the symptoms I felt before my period stopped. I am a very sensitive person and can feel even minor changes in my body.

Early Symptoms and Discovery

On the 15th day of my cycle, I experienced significant abdominal pain. My ovulation usually occurs around day 15 or 16, and typically, my breasts would become very sore immediately after ovulation. However, this time, even by day 20, there was no breast pain. I began to wonder, "Could I be pregnant this time?" By day 25, with still no pain, I was 99% sure because this had never happened before. In the previous two months, my cycle had been 29 days.

Around day 27, my breasts finally started hurting, and I had lower back pain. It felt like my period was about to start, but the pain was different—it felt like sharp, localized stabs in the muscles. I also became extremely thirsty and hungry. At that point, I was certain. On day 34, I tested using a kit with the first morning urine, and it was positive.

The First Trimester

I had heard about implantation bleeding, but I didn't experience any. After the positive result, the hunger and thirst continued. I had occasional abdominal pain, but it would disappear after 10–15 seconds. At six weeks, I had my first ultrasound. The gestational sac was visible, but nothing else could be seen yet. They also found a 6 cm cyst, and the doctor asked me to return in two weeks.

At eight weeks, I had another scan. This time, the heartbeat was there! The cyst was still the same size. While I felt slightly nauseous if my eating schedule was off, I didn't actually vomit. Around nine weeks, perhaps due to eating out, I had two days of severe stomach pain and gastric-related diarrhea, but it cleared up on its own. I felt more tired than usual and slightly short of breath.

Screenings and the Second Trimester

At 12 weeks, I had the NT/NB scan, and the report was normal. Surprisingly, the cyst was no longer visible. At 13 weeks, the doctor prescribed iron and calcium supplements and I received my Tdap vaccination.

By 15 weeks, I had another scan to check on the cyst; it had shrunk from 6 cm to 3.5 cm. At this stage, I hadn't started the supplements yet. I was trying to fulfill my requirements through food—eating beetroot and pomegranate for iron, and consuming milk, curd, and buttermilk for calcium. I decided that if I faced a deficiency later, I would take the medicine, but for now, I’d stick to a natural diet.

Around 15 weeks, I felt a "fluttering" or "rumbling" in my stomach. I wondered if it was the baby moving, but it felt more like internal gurgling. At 19 weeks, a check-up showed my iron levels had dropped, so I started taking iron (morning and night) and calcium regularly.

The Anomaly Scan and Movement

At 21 weeks, I had the Anomaly Scan. Everything was healthy, and the baby weighed 426 grams. The report noted an anterior placenta. Once the results came back clear, I felt a huge sense of relief. By 22 weeks, I finally began to feel the baby move distinctly. It was such a peaceful and wonderful feeling! I don't notice it as much while working or walking, but I feel it clearly when sitting still. Now, I find myself wanting to sit quietly just so I can feel the baby move.

Gestational Diabetes and Complications

At 25 weeks, I took the GCT (Glucose Challenge Test) with 50g of glucose. My sugar level was 153 mg/dL. Because it was high, I had to take the OGTT (Oral Glucose Tolerance Test) with 100g of glucose while fasting. They tested my blood at fasting, then at 1, 2, and 3 hours after the drink. The results were high again, and I was diagnosed with Gestational Diabetes.

The doctor suggested medication or insulin, but I wasn't ready to start meds immediately. I spent a week monitoring my levels at home after strictly controlling my diet. I cut out all sweets. My routine was:

8:00 AM: Brown rice with vegetables or corn grits (aato).

11:00 AM: Pear, kiwi, or half an apple.

1:30 PM: Buckwheat (phapar) or millet (kodo) roti.

6:00 PM: 4 cashews, 2 walnuts, 4 almonds, 6 pistachios.

9:00 PM: 2 dry rotis with vegetables.

Exercise: I walked for 15 minutes after every meal.

Initially, my sugar was controlled. However, by 28 weeks, the levels rose again. The stress kept me awake at night, and the numbers remained high despite the diet and exercise. Realizing that stress is worse for the baby, I consulted my doctor and started taking Metformin.

Final Stretch

At 32 weeks, a scan showed the baby weighed 1920 grams. Everything seemed fine, though I occasionally felt breathless. Then, I started experiencing itchy skin at night, and my urine and stool became very yellow, despite drinking plenty of water. Suspecting something, I had a Liver Function Test (LFT). My liver enzymes were elevated.

The doctor prescribed UDCA (Ursodeoxycholic Acid), but my body struggled to tolerate it, leading to severe diarrhea. My sugar levels also fluctuated, and the liver enzymes increased further. The doctor has now ordered a Bile Acid test and a CTG (Cardiotocography).

Now I have to take my medications for both diabetes and liver function. Based on the doctor's advice, the plan is to deliver the baby at 38 weeks. So far, as I approach that mark, I haven't faced any further major complications.

Finally I delivered a baby at 38.3 weeks by C-section.

B. pharmacy TU Pharmacotherapeutics old question paper/ 2081/2082

 

Medicine to Delay Periods – How to Take? Side Effects

Hello, with festivals approaching, one of the common concerns for many women is their period. Even when planning a long journey, periods often become a worry. Many wish if periods could be postponed for a while. There are certain medicines that can delay periods, but they should not be used unless absolutely necessary.

✓ First, for women already using contraceptive pills: if you finish 21 days of pills and instead of taking the usual 7-day break you directly start the next month’s pack, then your period will be delayed.

✓ Second, for women not using contraceptive pills: there is a medicine called Norethisterone. In Nepal, it is available under different brand names such as Femitrone, Norgest, Feminine, Primount, Noreth, etc.

---

How does it work?

Norethisterone tablets work like the natural hormone progesterone in women. As long as you continue taking the medicine, your period will be stopped. You need to take one tablet three times a day, starting at least three days before your expected period. It should not be taken for more than 17 days. While on the medicine, periods will be delayed, and once you stop taking it, your period usually comes within three days.

---

What does this tablet do?

Norethisterone is a synthetic form of the hormone progesterone. It prevents the lining of the uterus (endometrium) from breaking down. Normally, when this lining sheds, bleeding (period) starts. The tablets usually come in 5 mg doses, taken three times daily to postpone periods.

---

How long can it be taken?

It can be taken for up to 17 days at most. It should not be taken longer than this because side effects may increase, and it can disturb the body’s hormonal balance.

---

How to take the medicine?

Take a 5 mg Norethisterone tablet three times a day, always at the same time.

---

Possible side effects

Since it is only used for a short time, major side effects are uncommon. However, some women may experience nausea, dizziness, headache, irregular periods later, or breast tenderness.

---

Does it prevent pregnancy?

No, this medicine does not prevent pregnancy.

---

What if the period does not start even after stopping the medicine?

Normally, periods occur within 2–3 days after stopping the medicine, sometimes it may take 3–4 days longer. If periods do not occur, a pregnancy test should be done.

---

Who should not take this medicine?

• Anyone allergic to the medicine

• Pregnant women

• Women with blood clotting problems

• Those with deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

• Those with heart disease or history of heart attack

• Women with liver problems

• Women who had jaundice during pregnancy

🌿 How to Get Rid of Dandruff: Home Remedies & Best Medicated Anti-Dandruff Shampoos

 Dandruff is a common issue that most people experience. Some have dandruff only during winter, while others face it in both winter and summer. It often causes intense itching and discomfort, making people eager to find a solution.

Today, I will be discussing how to get rid of dandruff.

Dandruff is not a severe medical condition, but for young people, it can be embarrassing to have visible flakes in their hair. It causes itchiness and results in white flakes appearing on the scalp.

Causes of Dandruff

Dandruff can occur due to various reasons, including:

• Oily scalp: People with excessive oil production on their scalp are more prone to dandruff.
• Fungal infection: A type of fungus called Malassezia can infect the scalp, leading to dandruff.
• Skin conditions: Issues like psoriasis, eczema, or contact dermatitis can cause dandruff.
• Hair products: Some hair products can trigger dandruff in certain individuals.
• Poor hygiene: Not washing hair regularly or maintaining poor personal hygiene is one of the most common causes.

Home Remedies for Dandruff

There are several home remedies as well as medicated shampoos for treating dandruff. My recommendation is to try home remedies first, and if they do not work, you can opt for medicated treatments.

1. Maintain Proper Hygiene

• Use a good anti-dandruff shampoo and wash your hair every other day.
• If you have an oily scalp, you need to take extra care and wash your hair more frequently.

2. Aloe Vera (Ghieu Kumari)

• Apply aloe vera gel to your scalp 2-3 hours before washing your hair.
• Consistent use every time you wash your hair can help eliminate dandruff.

3. Coconut Oil

• Avoid using other oils when you have dandruff.
• However, applying 4-5 teaspoons of coconut oil to your scalp one hour before washing can help reduce dandruff.
• Studies suggest that coconut oil has antibacterial and antifungal properties.

4. Apple Cider Vinegar, Baking Soda, and Lemon Water

• Applying any of these to the scalp for a few minutes before washing can help reduce dandruff.
• However, these remedies may cause hair fall if used excessively.

Medicated Shampoos for Dandruff

If home remedies do not work, you can use medicated shampoos to treat dandruff. The most effective shampoos contain antifungal properties that help eliminate dandruff.

Common Medicated Shampoos

• Ketoconazole shampoo (most widely used)
• Salicylic acid-based shampoo
• Pyrithione zinc shampoo
• Coal tar shampoo
• Selenium sulfide shampoo

These shampoos are readily available at pharmacies. Among them, Ketoconazole shampoo is the most commonly used.

How to Use Ketoconazole Shampoo?

1. Wet your hair with water.
2. Apply the shampoo to the scalp and massage gently.
3. Leave it on for 10 minutes before rinsing.

• If you have an oily scalp, wash your hair daily and use Ketoconazole shampoo twice a week.
• If your hair is dry or frizzy, using Ketoconazole shampoo once a week is sufficient.
• Apply the medicated shampoo only to the scalp and use your regular shampoo for the rest of your hair.
• Stop using Ketoconazole shampoo once your dandruff disappears (after 2-4 weeks).

How to Prevent Dandruff?

• Eat a balanced diet rich in vitamins and nutrients.
• Maintain scalp hygiene by washing your hair regularly.
• Allow your hair to dry in natural sunlight after washing.
• Avoid excessive use of hair styling products containing chemicals.

By following these simple steps, you can effectively prevent and treat dandruff.

Let me know if you need any modifications or further improvements! 😊

How to Take Abortion Pills? What is Medical Abortion?

 Many women take abortion pills at home without proper guidance, which has even resulted in loss of lives. To prevent such risks and to save women’s lives, I have tried to provide some advice and information regarding this medicine.

---

What is Medical Abortion?

✓ Medical abortion means terminating a pregnancy by taking medicines.
✓ In medical abortion, surgery is not required. It can be done at home under the supervision of a trained health worker.
✓ This method is safe within the first 10 weeks of pregnancy (or within 70 days from the last menstrual period).
However, it is very important to get detailed information before proceeding with this process.

---

Information About the Medicines

1. 1 tablet 💊 Mifepristone 200 mg

2. 4 tablets 💊💊💊💊 Misoprostol 200 mcg each (total 800 mcg)

• Mifepristone blocks the effect of the hormone progesterone, which is necessary for pregnancy.

• Misoprostol causes the uterus to contract, leading to abortion.

• 
  
  

  
  

---

Method of Taking the Medicines

1. First, swallow Mifepristone with water.

2. After taking Mifepristone, wait for 24–48 hours.

3. Then take Misoprostol:

   • Place 4 tablets either under the tongue (sublingual) or 2 on the right cheek and 2 on the left cheek (buccal).

   • Keep them for 30 minutes without swallowing.

   • After 30 minutes, swallow the remaining medicine with water.

---

What Happens After Taking the Medicines?

• After taking Mifepristone, some women may start bleeding, while others may not notice any changes.

• After Misoprostol (24–48 hours later), bleeding should occur.

• Abdominal pain, cramping, nausea, and vomiting are common.

• Bleeding may be heavier than a normal period. Each woman experiences bleeding and abdominal pain differently.

---

What to Do if Side Effects Occur?

✓ If nausea/vomiting occurs → take antiemetics like Ondansetron
✓ If abdominal pain occurs → take painkillers like Brufen (Ibuprofen)
✓ If there is heavy bleeding → use sanitary pads
✓ On the day of taking Misoprostol, side effects like nausea, headache, fever, or diarrhea may occur.
✓ If side effects do not improve within 1 day → visit the nearest health facility.

---

When to Be Extra Careful?

✓ If there is excessive bleeding (soaking 2 sanitary pads within 1 hour, for 2 hours continuously)
✓ If dizziness, extreme tiredness, or weakness occurs
✓ If there is severe abdominal pain or foul-smelling vaginal discharge
✓ If high fever occurs
✓ If feeling extremely unwell or persistent vomiting

Visit doctor or hospital

---

How to Know if the Medicine Worked?

✓ If bleeding and abdominal cramps occur after taking the medicine → the abortion has worked.
✓ If no bleeding occurs, or only very light bleeding continues even after 4–5 days → the medicine has not worked, and you may still be pregnant.

---

When Can Sexual Intercourse Resume?

After taking the medicines, sexual activity can be resumed only once all side effects are gone and the body has recovered.

---

How to Prevent Future Unwanted Pregnancies?

• Repeated abortions can cause serious health problems.

• Therefore, it is important to use contraceptive methods like birth control pills, injections, condoms, or permanent methods to prevent future unwanted pregnancies.

What happens if you take Sildenafil tablet (Viagra) for long term?

 Sildenafil tablets (Viagra), is a medication, that is widely consumed recreationally, especially among young people. In Nepal, this drug is available under various brand names, including Viagra, Zenegra, Aryagra, and Silagra. It is available in 50 mg and 100 mg doses in the market.

What is Sildenafil?

Sildenafil is a medication used for men's sexual health. It is primarily prescribed to treat Erectile Dysfunction (ED), a condition where a man has difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection.

How does it work?

Sildenafil increases blood flow to the penis, helping achieve and sustain an erection. It is particularly beneficial for men who experience ED due to diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, or aging.

Recreational Use

Many young people are now using this medication without a doctor's prescription for recreational purposes. Some take it to boost confidence or enhance sexual performance.

Effects of Long-Term Use

If Sildenafil is misused for a long time:

• It can reduce confidence in engaging in sexual activity without the drug.
• Users may develop a psychological dependence on the medication.
• This condition is known as Psychogenic Erectile Dysfunction, where the ability to achieve an erection without the drug is compromised.

Who Should Be Cautious While Using This Drug?

If you have any of the following conditions, consult a doctor before using Sildenafil:

✔️ Heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, or liver/kidney problems

✔️ Currently taking nitrate medications

✔️ Serious eye conditions

✔️ Blood disorders

👉 Do not take this medication without a doctor's prescription if you have any of these conditions.

Proper Usage Guidelines

✔️ Always follow your doctor's prescription.

✔️ Typically, a 50 mg tablet is taken one hour before sexual activity.

✔️ Do not take it more than once a day, as excessive use can be harmful.

Serious Side Effects

Seek immediate medical attention if you experience:

❗ An erection lasting more than 4 hours

❗ Headache, chest pain, blurred vision, or hearing loss

❗ Increased heart rate or feeling weak

👉 Visit a doctor immediately if you experience these symptoms.

Long-Term Risks of Using Sildenafil

1️⃣ Heart Problems: It can increase blood pressure and the risk of heart attack.

2️⃣ Vision Issues: It may cause blurred vision or even sudden vision loss.

3️⃣ Hearing Problems: It can lead to tinnitus (ringing in the ears) or sudden hearing loss.

4️⃣ Psychological Dependence: Users may lose confidence in performing without the drug.

5️⃣ Digestive Issues: Long-term use can cause acidity, gastric problems, or indigestion.

Final Message

🚨 If you are using this drug recreationally, be cautious!

👉 Improper use can have severe health consequences.

👉 Do not take Sildenafil without medical advice.

If you found this information helpful, like, comment, and share.

🙏 Thank you! 

Can we use Vitamin E Capsules directly on face and hair ? Tips to use Vitamin E Capsule

 

Nowadays, many people visit pharmacies to buy Vitamin E capsules for application on their skin and hair. But is it really appropriate to apply Vitamin E capsules directly to the skin and hair? Today, I will discuss this topic.

Before that, let’s first understand Vitamin E.

Vitamin E is also known as the "beauty vitamin" because it has antioxidant properties. It is found in abundance in dry fruits like almonds, cashews, walnuts, sunflower seeds, and sesame seeds; green vegetables like spinach, cabbage, and fenugreek leaves; and fruits like kiwi, avocado, and mangoes.

• Vitamin E helps reduce age-related skin issues like blemishes and wrinkles.
• It keeps the skin hydrated and radiant.
• It helps reduce hair fall, prevents split ends, and strengthens the hair.
• It boosts the immune system, protecting the body from infections and diseases.
• It helps balance cholesterol levels.
• It improves blood circulation, reducing the risk of heart attacks.
• It strengthens eye muscles and helps maintain clear vision.
• It aids in the faster healing of small wounds, burns, and scars.

These are the benefits of Vitamin E. If you are consuming the foods mentioned above regularly, you don’t need to take Vitamin E capsules separately. However, many people nowadays apply Vitamin E capsules directly to their skin and hair.

To clarify, the Vitamin E capsules available in pharmacies are meant for oral consumption, not for direct application to the skin and hair. If you need Vitamin E for skincare, you can use moisturizers or creams that contain Vitamin E. Similarly, for hair care, you can use shampoos and conditioners enriched with Vitamin E.

If you still want to apply Vitamin E from capsules to your skin and hair, how should you do it?

It is best not to apply Vitamin E oil directly to your skin and hair, as it may cause allergic dermatitis. Instead, mix the oil from the capsule with aloe vera, coconut oil, almond oil, or rose water before applying.

How did you find this ? If you found it helpful, please don’t hesitate to like, comment, and share. Thank you! 

Isotretinoin, Side effects, Contraindication and Precautions

 Acne, is a common issue among many young people. No matter how much treatment some receive, they never seem to improve, and they keep running to hospitals wondering how they will recover. Today, I will provide information about a medication used for acne, i.e. isotretinoin. It is not enough to just know how to take this medication; it is also important to understand the potential side effects and the situations in which it should not be used.

"Isotretinoin is a Vitamin A derivative that reduces the activity of oil-producing glands in the skin. It helps in the regeneration of the skin."

For what type of acne is this medication suitable?

1. It is suitable for those with more severe forms of acne.
2. It is also appropriate for those who have not responded to other treatments such as antibiotics or creams. However, it should only be used with a doctor's recommendation.

This medication comes in capsule form, and the dosage is 0.5 mg/kg per day. If you weigh 60 kg, you should start with 30 mg per day or 15 mg in the morning and evening. Always take isotretinoin after a meal, and make sure to drink a glass of water with it. For more severe acne, the medication should be taken for 15 to 20 weeks.

Now, let’s talk about the potential side effects:

1. Dry and cracked lips: Use lip balm for this.
2. Dry  mouth and dry eyes: Use moisturizer for the mouth and artificial tears for the eyes.
3. The skin becomes more sensitive to the sun: Use sunscreen when going out in the sun. Avoid using any kind of cleansing or waxing on your face while on this medication.
4. Hair may become thin or fall out, but this issue gradually decreases after stopping the medication.
5. Some may experience body aches as well.

In more severe cases, isotretinoin may cause:

• A decrease in high-density lipoproteins (HDLs),
• Elevated liver function tests (LFTs),
• Decreased blood levels, including hemoglobin and hematocrit. Red and white blood cell counts may decrease, while platelet count may increase. If a decrease in white blood cells is noticed, stop the medication immediately.

What precautions should be taken while on this medication? 

• Patients taking isotretinoin should not donate blood during treatment and for one month after stopping the treatment. 
• If isotretinoin is combined with tetracycline, pseudotumor cerebri (a condition with increased pressure around the brain) may occur. Therefore, isotretinoin should not be given with tetracycline. If symptoms of pseudotumor cerebri occur, stop isotretinoin immediately and refer the patient to a neurologist for further evaluation.

Who should not take isotretinoin? 

• Isotretinoin is contraindicated in pregnant women and women who may become pregnant. It has been shown to cause serious harm to a developing baby when taken during pregnancy. Women should use birth control pills or avoid sexual activity while taking isotretinoin and for some time after stopping it. Men who are taking isotretinoin should not participate in sperm donation while on the medication. 
• Those who are allergic to Vitamin A should also avoid taking this medication.

Diet for patients with hemorrhoid's/ Piles

 

INTRODUCTION:

Hemorrhoids are enlarged veins in the lower rectum and anus, commonly referred to as piles. They may result in bleeding, pain, and discomfort. Hemorrhoids can be treated with a nutritious diet to lessen their symptoms and stop them from coming again. Now, let's get going.

Foods to eat:

• High-fiber foods: Consuming foods high in fiber can help to soften and facilitate the passage of stool, which eases the pressure on the rectum and anus. Legumes, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are all excellent providers of fiber.
• Water: Keeping the stool soft and avoiding constipation, which aggravates hemorrhoids, are two benefits of drinking lots of water.
• Probiotics: Probiotics are beneficial bacteria that can lessen constipation and enhance gut health. They can be found in fermented foods like kefir and yogurt.
• Lean protein: Consuming foods high in protein, such as fish, poultry, and legumes, can help you stay lean and avoid gaining weight, which can put additional strain on your anus and rectum.

FOODS TO AVOID:

• Acidic and spicy foods: These foods can aggravate the rectum and anus lining, exacerbating the symptoms of hemorrhoids. Steer clear of foods like tomatoes, citrus fruits, and spicy peppers.
• Foods that have been processed: processed foods are frequently low in fiber and high in fat, which can exacerbate hemorrhoid symptoms and cause constipation.
• Caffeine and alcohol: Caffeine and alcohol both cause the body to become dehydrated and constipated, which exacerbates hemorrhoids.

ADDITIONAL ADVICE:

• Smaller, more frequent meals should be consumed throughout the day to avoid constipation and overindulgence.
• Hemorrhoids can worsen if you hold in your stool, so don't put off using the restroom when you need to.
• Engage in regular exercise to enhance bowel movement and circulation.

SUMMARY: 

Ultimately, controlling hemorrhoid symptoms can be greatly aided by maintaining a nutritious diet. Avoiding certain foods, drinking lots of water, and eating high-fiber foods can all help prevent constipation and lessen the pressure on the rectum and anus. 

Conductometry: Principal, Instrumentation and Application

 

Conductance: flow of electricity through a electrolyte solution due to migration of ions by applying potential difference between two electrode.

-         Cathode (-ve charged) will attract cations (+ve charged)

-         Anode (+ve charged) will attract anions (-ve charged)

It is denoted by G. and is reciprocal of resistance R.

So, G= 1/R

Units of conductance is siemens (S).

Specific Conductance:

Resistance is directly proportional to the length (l) and inversely proportional to the cross-section area (a) of the conductor.

R ∝ l/a

R= ρl/a where, ρ= specific resistance

R= ρ= Specific resistance (having 1 m length and 1 m² area)

·        Specific conductance (k): reciprocal of specific resistance

(k)= 1/ ρ,

k= l/a *1/R,

K=l/a * G

Unit of specific conductance is siemens.m^-1

Equivalent conductance:

·        Conductance one gram equivalent solutions. If l=1 m, volume= 1m³ and 1 gm equivalent solution is taken then,

·        G=k

·        It is denoted by the symbol “Λ”. And its unit is siemens.m²/gram equivalent.

 

Molar conductivity:

·        Molar conductivity can also be defined as the conducting power of all the ions that are formed by dissolving a mole of electrolyte in a solution. 

Λ_m = K / C

·        Where K is the specific conductivity and c is the concentration in mole per litre.

·        The unit of molar conductivity is Siemens⋅m²⋅mol^-1.

 

Principal:

Conductometry is based in the principal of determination of changes in conductivity. Change in conductance is due to replacement of ions with each other.

Ionic conductivity is different for different ions.

 

Instrumentation:

 

Current Source:

-         Alternative current source is used.

-         High frequency alternating current generator is employed.

-         Electrical potential is applied, ions will be transferred and ultimately conductance takes place.

 

Conductivity meter:

-         Digital display

-         Calibrator

-         Power switch

 

Conductivity Cell:

-         It is made up of pyrex or quartz

-         Fitted with 2 electrodes

: cathode

: anode

 

Electrodes:

-         Electrodes are made up of platinum

^-          Area of electrode surface = 1 cm²

-         Distance between two electrode is 1 cm

-         Electrodes are plated with platinum black: to avoid polarization

: to increase the surface area

-         Coating is done through 3% chloroplatinic acid and lead acetate

 

Conductometric titration

The principle of conductometric titration is based on the fact that during the titration, one of the ions is replaced by the other and invariably these two ions differ in the ionic conductivity with the result that conductivity of the solution varies during the course of titration. The equivalence point can be located graphically by plotting the changes of conductance as a function of the volume of the added titrant.

The most important advantages of this method are that it can be used for determination of:

– turbid and highly coloured solutions,

– very dilute solutions,

– reaction which is not complete and where there is no suitable indicator, e.g. reaction between weak acid and weak base.

 

Precaution to be considered in conductometric titrations:

1. Upon carrying on titration the titrant used should be at least 10 times concentrated as the solution to be determined, e.g. on determination of 0.01 M hydrochloric acid the titrant sodium hydroxide should be at least 0.1 M. By this way dilution that takes place during titration is minimum and this is necessary because conductivity decreases with dilution.

2. Avoid the presence of ions which will not take part in the reaction, such as the presence of buffer or concentrated acids. These ions will increase the initial conductivity and its change during the titration will be comparatively small and can not be accurately observed.

3. The method is suitable for detection of end point in neutralization, complexation and precipitation reactions but not redox reaction, as there is no electron transfer at the electrode surface.

 

Some typical conductometric titration curves are:

1. Strong Acid with a Strong Base, e.g. HCl with NaOH

Before NaOH is added, the conductance is high due to the presence of highly mobile hydrogen ions. When the base is added, the conductance decreases due to the replacement of hydrogen ions by the added cation as H⁺ ions react with OH^- ions to form undissociated water.

This decrease in the conductance continues till the equivalence point. At the equivalence point, the solution contains only NaCl. After the equivalence point, the conductance increases due to the high conductivity of OH-ions.

Fig: Conductometric titration of strong acid (HCl) vs. strong base (NaOH).

2. Strong Acid with a Weak Base, e.g. HCl with dilute ammonia

Initially the conductance is high and then it decreases due to the replacement of H+. But after the endpoint has been reached, the graph becomes almost horizontal, since the excess aqueous ammonia is not appreciably ionised in the presence of ammonium chloride (Fig. 2).

Conductometric titration of strong acid (HCl) vs. weak base (NH4OH).

3. Weak Acid with a Strong Base: e.g. CH3COOH with NaOH

Initially a slight decrease in the conductance is caused by binding a small amount of hydrogen ions, originating from dissociation of acetic acid, into water molecules. Next, the gradual conductance increase is connected with the substitution of the weakly dissociated acetic acid by the well dissociated sodium acetate. After the equivalence point has been reached, the conductance increases significantly due to the increasing concentration of OH ions (Fig. 3).

Conductometric titration of weak acid (CH3COOH) vs. strong base (NaOH).

4. Weak Acid with a Weak Base: e.g. CH3COOH with dilute ammonia

Initially a slight decrease in the conductance is caused by binding a small amount of hydrogen ions originating from dissociation of acetic acid and next an increase is observed because of well dissociated salt - ammonium acetate formation. After the equivalence point the conductance increases but much less (Fig. 4).

Conductometric titration of weak acid (CH3COOH) vs. weak base (NH4OH).

Application of Conductance measurement

• They are used to determine the purity of water by checking the pollution levels of various water bodies.
• Conductometric titration is also used to examine the alkalinity of freshwater bodies and the salinity of seawater.
• Conductometry is also used in the food industry by microbiologists in order to trace microorganisms. 
• The application of conductometric titration is also found in the pharmaceutical industry. It is used to check the basicity of organic acids and to detect antibiotics.
• It is used to determine the purity of distilled water or its freshness by examining the chemical equilibrium in ionic reactions.

Advantages of conductometric titration

Some of the main advantages of such titration are given:

1.     It is quite difficult to select suitable indicators for the titration of colored solutions. In such cases, conductometric titration can be carried out.

2.     Titration of very diluted solution and weak acids versus weak bases can not be carried out in volumetric titration but titration of such acid bases can be carried out quite easily with the help of conductometric titration.

3.     In a volumetric titration, special attention is needed near the endpoint to detect the color change but in this titration, no such special care is required near the endpoint.